PSYCHOLOGY WARFARE

Edited/Added and Translated By : M. Meenachi Sundaram

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE.. 9

PSYCHOLOGY WARFARE.. 16

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.. 16

PART ONE - DEFINITION AND HISTORY.. 20

CHAPTER 1: Historic Examples of Psychological Warfare. 20

The Understanding Of Psychological Warfare. 21

The Use Of Panic By Gideon. 22

Field Propaganda Of The Athenians And The Han. 25

Emphasis on Ideology. 27

The Black Propaganda Of Genghis Khan. 31

The Blindness Of John Milton. 33

Other Instances From History. 34

The American Revolution. 37

Boers And Burmese. 39

CHAPTER 2: The Function of Psychological Warfare. 41

Psychological Warfare as a Branch of Psychology. 42

Psychological Warfare as a Part of War. 44

Ideology. 48

Education. 49

Salesmanship. 50

Psychological Warfare and Public Relations. 51

Psychological Warfare and Morale Services. 52

Related Civilian Activities. 53

CHAPTER 3: Definition of Psychological Warfare. 55

Broad and Narrow Definitions. 56

Warfare Psychologically Waged. 59

Propaganda: Definitions. 62

CHAPTER : The Limitations of Psychological Warfare. 67

Political Limitations of Psychological Warfare. 67

Definition of the Enemy. 70

Promises. 72

Security Limitations. 73

Security Procedures. 74

Media Limitations. 76

Maximum Performance of Personnel. 78

Counterpropaganda. 81

CHAPTER 5: Psychological Warfare in World War I 83

The British Effort. 85

The German Failure In Propaganda. 86

The Creel Committee. 89

The Bolshevik and Chinese Revolutions. 93

CHAPTER 6: Psychological Warfare in World War II 100

The Pre-Belligerent Stages. 103

German Accomplishments. 104

The British-German Radio War. 105

Black Propaganda. 112

American Operations: OWI and OSS. 114

The Lessons. 121

Qualifications for Psychological Warfare. 123

Effects of American Operations. 126

Soviet Experience. 127

Japanese Developments. 128

Chinese Uses. 129

PART TWO - ANALYSIS, INTELLIGENCE, AND ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION.. 131

CHAPTER 7: Propaganda Analysis. 131

Monitoring. 132

Printed Materials. 134

Radio. 135

Monitoring by a Single Individual. 137

Identification: Propaganda vs. Truth. 138

The Stasm Formula. 142

Complete Breakdown of a Single Propaganda Item. 144

Identification of Enemy Plans and Situations. 148

Estimating the Enemy's Propaganda Situation. 148

Propanal as a Source of Military Intelligence. 150

CHAPTER 8: Propaganda Intelligence. 155

News as Intelligence. 158

The Need for Timeliness. 162

Opinion Analysis. 163

Profile of Opinion. 166

Interrogation. 167

Specificity. 169

CHAPTER 9: Estimate of the Situation. 172

Definiteness of the Goal. 173

The Propaganda Man. 175

The Attribution of Motive. 178

A Written Estimate of the Situation. 182

The Question of Choice. 188

Allied Operations. 189

Estimate of One's Own Capacity. 190

PART THREE - PLANNING AND OPERATIONS.. 193

CHAPTER 10: Organization for Psychological Warfare. 193

National Propaganda Organizations. 198

American Psychological Warfare Agencies. 199

The Joho Kyoku. 207

Theater Psychological Warfare. 210

Field Operations. 214

CHAPTER 11: Plans and Planning. 217

Needs of the Operator: Materials and Guidance. 217

CLASSIFIED.. 219

Unrestricted. 220

Pre-Belligerent Planning. 221

Psychological Warfare Plans. 222

Strategic and Consolidation Plans. 225

Contingency Plans. 226

CHAPTER 12: Operations for Civilians. 227

Short-wave Radio. 227

Standard-wave. 229

Communication Through the Mails. 231

Leaflets. 232

Pamphlets. 233

Subversive Operations. 234

Motion Pictures. 236

CHAPTER 13: Operations Against Troops. 237

Morale Operations. 239

News Leaflets. 242

Tactical Defensive Psychological Warfare. 242

Role of Small-Unit Commanders. 250

Field Liaison. 251

Radio Support. 252

Air Support. 253

Leaflet-Discharging Weapons. 253

Contingencies of the Future. 255

Surrender Leaflets. 256

Other Action Leaflets. 261

Loudspeaker Units. 262

PART FOUR - PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE AFTER WORLD WAR II 266

CHAPTER 14: The "Cold War" and Seven Small Wars. 266

Recognition and Delay. 266

New Interpretations of Policy and Propaganda. 267

Communist and Anti-Communist Psychological Events. 268

The Cold War. 269

Nature of the Cold War. 269

Origins of the Cold War. 270

The Cold War and the Actual Fighting. 271

The Cold War and the Home Front. 273

Alternatives to Victory and Defeat. 274

The End of the Cold War. 276

The Seven Small Wars. 277

The Special Case of China. 279

PsyWar in the Indonesian-Dutch War. 279

The Philippine War Against the Huks. 281

Indochina and Political Warfare. 282

Malaya and the MRLA. 284

The Right to Join. 287

Propaganda Techniques in the Seven Wars. 288

CHAPTER 15: Strategic International Information Operations. 290

Demobilization and Remobilization. 291

Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs. 293

Other U.S. Facilities. 294

Radio Free Europe and Radio Free Asia. 296

The Psychological Strategy Board. 297

William Jackson Report. 298

Operations Coordinating Board. 299

Limitations of the American Originators. 301

War and Unanimity. 303

The Propaganda of Friendship. 304

CHAPTER 16: Research, Development, and the Future. 307

The Meaning of War. 307

Research into Tension. 308

Revolutionary Possibilities in Psychology. 309

National Research and Development Programs. 311

Developmental Research in PsyWar. 312

Operations Research in Korea. 313

Philosophy and Propaganda Development. 314

Literary Contributions. 314

Psychology and Related Sciences. 315

Projection and Research. 316

Communist Developments. 319

Private PsyWar and Covert Techniques. 322

The Future of Psychological Warfare. 324

APPENDIX Military PsyWar Operations, 1950-53. 327

Organization of Field Operational Units. 327

Radio Broadcasting and Leaflet Group. 327

Loudspeaker and Leaflet Company. 328

Psychological Warfare Center. 329

Psychological Warfare Staff, FEC. 330

Psychological Warfare Staff, EUSAK. 331

Radio Operations. 332

Leaflet Operations. 332

Loudspeaker Operations. 333

Results of Military PsyWar Operations. 333

FOOTNOTES: 335

Index. 336

ALSO BY PAUL M. A. LINEBARGER: 370

ABOUT THE AUTHOR.. 372

PREFACE

1. Introduction to Psychological Warfare:

Psychological warfare, also known as psyops (psychological operations), is a method of influencing the thoughts, emotions, and behaviors of individuals or groups, often during times of conflict or competition. It aims to manipulate perceptions, lower morale, and cause confusion or fear in the adversary. Unlike traditional warfare that uses physical force, psychological warfare employs psychological tactics, such as propaganda, misinformation, and other non-lethal means, to achieve its objectives.

2. Historical Roots of Psychological Warfare:

Psychological warfare has been used throughout history, dating back to ancient times. Military strategists like Sun Tzu and Julius Caesar recognized the importance of mental manipulation in warfare. For example, Sun Tzu’s *Art of War* emphasizes deception and mental tactics to defeat enemies without engaging in direct combat. Similarly, Roman armies would use psychological intimidation by parading their might to demoralize opponents.

3. World War I and the Rise of Modern Psyops:

The use of psychological warfare became more systematic during World War I. Propaganda was widely deployed by both the Allied and Central Powers to influence public opinion and boost morale at home while demoralizing the enemy. Pamphlets, posters, and radio broadcasts were used to create narratives that would shape the public’s perception of the war. Psychological tactics also included the use of spies and double agents to spread misinformation.

4. World War II: The Golden Age of Psychological Warfare:

World War II saw the expansion of psychological warfare to an unprecedented level. The Allied and Axis powers both employed large-scale psyops to weaken each other. Leaflets were dropped behind enemy lines to spread defeatist messages, and propaganda films were made to shape public opinion. Nazi Germany used propaganda under Joseph Goebbels to promote their ideology and control the narrative within the country, while the Allies used radio broadcasts and leaflets to undermine German morale.

5. Cold War and Psychological Warfare:

The Cold War era witnessed an intense battle for influence between the United States and the Soviet Union. Psychological warfare became central to this geopolitical struggle, with both sides seeking to sway hearts and minds. The U.S. government formed institutions like the United States Information Agency (USIA) to spread pro-American messages, while the Soviet Union used the KGB to promote communist ideology globally. The arms race was not just about military power but also about winning the ideological war.

6. Propaganda in Psychological Warfare:

Propaganda remains one of the most important tools of psychological warfare. Through various media channels, propaganda shapes public opinion and influences perceptions of the enemy or a political issue. It simplifies complex issues into easy-to-understand messages, often exaggerating facts to provoke fear, hatred, or loyalty. During conflicts, propaganda can galvanize a nation’s support for war while sowing doubt and confusion among opponents.

7. Psychological Warfare and Misinformation:

Misinformation, or the deliberate spread of false information, plays a key role in psychological warfare. By planting false stories or distorting the truth, psyops aim to confuse the enemy or create internal discord. This tactic can destabilize a country or organization, as individuals struggle to separate fact from fiction. Misinformation campaigns, especially in the digital age, can spread rapidly through social media, amplifying their effects.

8. The Role of Fear in Psychological Warfare:

Fear is a powerful weapon in psychological warfare. By instilling fear in the minds of opponents, psyops can weaken their resolve and create panic. The threat of imminent danger, whether real or imagined, can cause individuals to make irrational decisions or abandon their positions. Historically, armies have used fear through tactics like surprise attacks, threats of chemical weapons, or exaggerated reports of the enemy’s strength.

9. Psychological Warfare in Cyber Conflicts:

The rise of the internet has transformed psychological warfare. Cyber-psychological operations (cyber psyops) target digital platforms to spread misinformation, sow discord, and influence public opinion. Nation-states and non-state actors use online propaganda, social media bots, and hacking to influence elections, disrupt societies, and manipulate perceptions. Cyber psyops have become an integral part of modern conflicts, blurring the lines between military and civilian targets.

10. Psychological Warfare and Intelligence Agencies:

Intelligence agencies, such as the CIA, MI6, and the KGB, have long been involved in psychological warfare. These agencies not only gather information but also engage in covert psychological operations to influence global politics. From funding opposition groups to launching disinformation campaigns, intelligence agencies often use psychological tactics to destabilize regimes or shape the outcome of international events.

11. The Psychology of Deception:

Deception is a central theme in psychological warfare. By creating false narratives or misleading the enemy about intentions or capabilities, psyops can gain a strategic advantage. Deception strategies have been used in military campaigns, diplomacy, and intelligence operations. One of the most famous examples is Operation Fortitude during World War II, where the Allies tricked Nazi Germany into believing that the D-Day invasion would occur at a different location.

12. Psychological Warfare and Espionage:

Espionage plays a crucial role in psychological warfare, as it involves the covert gathering of information to use against an enemy. Spies and informants infiltrate enemy ranks to gather intelligence, spread disinformation, and manipulate public opinion. The Cold War era was marked by an intense espionage battle between the U.S. and Soviet Union, with both sides employing psychological tactics to gain the upper hand.

13. Psychological Warfare and Torture:

In extreme cases, psychological warfare can involve the use of torture, both physical and mental, to break down an opponent’s will. Techniques like sleep deprivation, isolation, and humiliation are used to destabilize individuals and force them to cooperate or confess. While controversial and often violating international law, these methods have been employed in various conflicts to gain information or break resistance.

14. Psychological Warfare in Business and Competition:

Psychological warfare is not limited to military contexts. In the business world, companies often use psychological tactics to outmaneuver competitors. From strategic advertising that undermines competitors’ products to misinformation in corporate takeovers, psychological warfare can be used to sway consumer opinions, disrupt competitors, and gain market share.

15. The Role of Psychological Warfare in Terrorism:

Terrorist organizations use psychological warfare as a core component of their strategy. By carrying out high-profile attacks or releasing propaganda videos, terrorist groups aim to spread fear, destabilize societies, and gain recruits. Psychological warfare is also used to polarize societies, provoke overreactions, and challenge the legitimacy of governments, making terrorism a complex psychological as well as physical threat.

16. Psychological Warfare in Diplomacy:

Psychological warfare extends to diplomatic relations, where states use psychological tactics to gain leverage in negotiations or conflict resolution. Diplomatic psyops may involve subtle threats, manipulation of public opinion, or leaking information to the media. Diplomats may also engage in psychological manipulation to weaken the resolve of their counterparts or gain concessions without resorting to military force.

17. Psychological Warfare in Propaganda Films and Media:

Throughout history, propaganda films and media have been tools of psychological warfare. Governments and organizations create films, documentaries, and news stories that promote their ideology or discredit their enemies. The ability of visual media to evoke emotional responses makes it a potent tool for manipulating public sentiment and influencing perceptions during conflicts.

18. Psychological Warfare and Cultural Influence:

Cultural influence is another dimension of psychological warfare. States often promote their values, ideologies, and way of life as superior, seeking to dominate the cultural narrative. This can undermine an opponent's national identity or social cohesion. For example, during the Cold War, the U.S. and Soviet Union engaged in a cultural battle, promoting their respective systems of capitalism and communism.

19. Psychological Warfare in Civil Unrest:

Governments and insurgent groups alike use psychological warfare during periods of civil unrest. Governments may use fear and propaganda to maintain control, while protest movements deploy psychological tactics to rally support and undermine the government’s authority. Social media has become a crucial battleground for psychological warfare in civil unrest, allowing both sides to spread messages and shape public opinion in real-time.

20. Countering Psychological Warfare:

Counter-psychological warfare strategies are essential for defending against psyops. Governments and organizations develop methods to detect and counter disinformation, propaganda, and fear-mongering tactics. Public education campaigns, media literacy programs, and fact-checking organizations have become crucial tools in mitigating the effects of psychological warfare, particularly in the digital age.

21. Ethics of Psychological Warfare:

The ethics of psychological warfare are often debated, as the manipulation of emotions and perceptions can have long-lasting effects on individuals and societies. While psyops are non-lethal, their impact can be damaging, leading to mental trauma, social division, and instability. Ethical considerations revolve around the line between legitimate influence and unethical manipulation.

22. Psychological Warfare in Modern Politics:

In modern politics, psychological warfare is frequently employed by political parties, interest groups, and even governments to gain an edge over opponents. Negative campaigning, character assassination, and media manipulation are common tactics used to sway voters and influence election outcomes. The increasing polarization in many countries can be traced back to these psychological warfare tactics.

23. The Role of Social Media in Psychological Warfare:

Social media has become a powerful tool for psychological warfare in the 21st century. Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram allow psyops to be conducted on a global scale, influencing millions of people in real-time. Social media’s ability to spread both factual and misleading information quickly makes it a double-edged sword in modern psychological warfare.

24. Psychological Warfare and National Identity:

Psychological warfare often targets national identity, aiming to undermine the sense of unity and pride within a country. By attacking cultural symbols, traditions, and national values, psyops can create division and weaken the resolve of the populace. National identity can become a battleground  where psychological warfare seeks to rewrite history, challenge the status quo, or promote a new ideological narrative.

25. Conclusion: The Power and Limitations of Psychological Warfare:

Psychological warfare remains a potent tool in the arsenal of states, organizations, and individuals. While it has the power to influence minds and change the course of conflicts, it also has its limitations. In an age of information overload and rapid technological advancement, psychological warfare is evolving, but so are the methods to detect and counter it. Understanding its mechanisms, ethics, and consequences is crucial as psyops continue to play a pivotal role in modern geopolitics.